Modernization Theory

Abstract:

Modernization theory is the theory used to summarize modern transformations of social life. Throughout the certain periods of time modernization theories attempt to identify the social, economic, political, psychological variables which contributed to the social progress and development of certain societies. In the 6th century modernization theory was used to differentiate contemporary literature from classical literature. In16th century modernization theory refers to new inventions in literature, Architecture and Fashion. And during 17th century modernization theory refers to debate over Primitive and Modern society. Many Scholars and Sociologists contribute to the development of Modernization theory. Max Weber, Karl Marx, Talcott Parsons, Neil Smelser, Daniel Lerner are one of them. Basically, when society transforms from traditional to modern it is a kind of modernization. Various Sociologists explain how the society transforms from traditional to modern through modernization.

Introduction:

Modernization is a complex and universal issue. Modernization is used at different times to build a new society from the old one or to transition to a new society, it is a process which means the spread of world culture.

According to Rostow, “Modernization is a dynamic blend of traditional and western influence.”

According to Lerner, “Modernization is a process by which underdeveloped societies acquire the characteristics of more advanced societies.”

Modernization theory is defined as the sociological theory stating that societies will inevitably change in positive, progressive ways over the course of their existence. The mainstream sociological model of modernization supposes that Western capitalist societies provide the model for modernization. However, some theories, such as Marxist modernization, do not use Western societies or capitalism as a goal. The varied theories of modernization have been strongly criticized, as has the general concept of modernization. Many sociologists, most of whom studied in the United States, contributed to the creation of modernization theory. It is still a widespread and powerful concept in sociology.

Objectives of the Study:

To know the Modernization
To know the Modernization Theory
To know the contribution of various sociologists in the modernization theory

Definition of Modernization Theory:

“The process of social change whereby less developed societies acquire characteristics to more developed societies, the process active by international or inter societal communication” [Encyclopedia of Social Science]

Wilbert Moore (1963) said that "Modernization is a total transformation of a traditional society into the types of technology and associated social organization that characterize the advanced politically stable nations of the Western World".

Propositions:

In the 1950s and early 1960s modernization theory was developed by a number of social scientists, particularly a group of American scholars, the most prominent of whom was Talcott Parsons. Much of this interest in modernization was prompted by the decline of the old colonial empires. Modernization theory is a grand theory encompassing many different disciplines as it seeks to explain how society progresses, what variables affect that progress, and how societies can react to that progress. Modernization theory focuses specifically on a type of modernization thought to have originated in Europe during the 17th century, which brought social mores and technological achievements into a new epoch.

Explain why poorer countries failed to evolve into modern societies.
Reduce the spread of communism by presenting capitalist values as the solution to poverty.

The third world became a focus of attention by politicians who were keen to show countries pushing for independence that sustained development was possible under the western wing.

Origin of Modernization Theory:

Modernization theory finds its origin in the ideas of Max Weber, the German sociologist who discussed the role of irrationality and rationality in a traditional society’s transition into a modern society (Mayhew, 1985, Dibua, 2006).

Weber’s approach would later constitute the foundation for the paradigm of modernization developed by the Harvard sociologist Talcott Parson.

Having translated Weber’s writings, Parsons rendered them his interpretations, and sought to develop an approach for poor nations to overcome what he thought impeded their development.

Modernization theory was developed in the late 1940s, and it sought to address poverty especially in 3rd world countries with an evidently non-communist solution that embraced a capitalist model of industrialized development and Western democratic values.

In the aftermath of WWII, many Asian, African and Latin American nations, despite some prior exposure to capitalism, remained underdeveloped and poor. Leaders of the West, especially the United States, were exceedingly disturbed by the situation which could become fertile ground for violent revolutions and totalitarian communism.

Characteristics of Modernization Theory:

The features of modernization theory are chiefly twofold:

It is a process of social change.
It is active in international societal communication.
It is a total transformation of traditional society.
It seeks to explain the poverty of underdeveloped nations: Modernization theory argues that cultural norms of impoverished countries in Latin America, Africa and Asia constitute the primary impediments to their progress. According to this view, internal institutions, societal customs, political governance and economic practices were fundamentally responsible for this situation.
It proposes solutions to enable their progress: According to modernization theory, these nations would have to adopt industrial practices (e.g., large scale production in factories rather than production at home/smaller workshops) and a capitalist system wherein industries are run by private money and products are manufactured for larger markets rather than individual consumption.

Tradition versus Modernity:

In a traditional society, three crucial features are noted:

The value of traditionalism itself is dominant: that is, people are oriented to the past and they lack the cultural ability to adjust to new circumstances;
The kinship system is the decisive reference point for all social practices, being the primary means through which economic, political and legal relationships are controlled. One's position in the kinship system and, hence in the society is ascribed, not achieved, that is, is a reflection of the status or standing of the family, clan or tribe into which one is born; one's position only changes as one moves up the family hierarchy. Status is then, not earned or achieved, but conferred by virtue of kin relationships;
Members of the traditional society have an emotional, superstitious and fatalistic approach to the world: 'what will be will be: 'things have always been this way.

In contrast, 'modern' society is made up of completely opposite characteristics:

People may still have traditions but they are not slaves to them and will challenge any that seem unnecessary or get in the way of continued cultural progress (that is they do not suffer from 'traditionalism');
Kinship has a very much less important role in all areas of society (even within the family) because of the need for geographical and social mobility which weakens family ties; moreover, one's position in the economy, polity etc" is earned through hard work and high achievement-motivation and not determined by kinship;
Members of -the modern society are not fatalistic but forward-looking and innovative, ready to overcome the obstacles they find in their way, particularly in business affairs, reflecting a strong entrepreneurial spirit and rational, scientific approach to the world.

Modernization Theory According to Various Sociologists:

Emile Durkheim:

Traditional Society:

Perform the limited tasks of a simple agrarian community based on groups of families or clans in village settlements.
Social cohesion is based on the simple lifestyle and beliefs that prevail within and between settlements.
Durkheim calls this form of cohesion ‘mechanical solidarity’.

Modern Society:

Social rules are much less rigid than those of a traditional society.
Modern individuals have a much greater freedom of action within a general set of moral constraints.
Potential dangers occur in society if the individual’s desires and ambitions get out of step with the general moral code.

Max Weber:

Sought to explain the emergence of industrialization. Why capitalist manufacturing became dominant only in the economy of Western Europe. The basic explanation for this occurrence was the existence of a cultural process peculiar to Western society, namely ‘rationalization’.

Rational organization of business enterprise to establish steady profitability and the accumulation of capital; ( cost reduction, diligent investment, attempt to meet consumers’ demand);

West: The rational ethos of the spirit of capitalism.

East: The profits of business were wasted on the purchase of luxurious items for immediate consumption.

Traditional Society: Three Crucial Features

People are orientated to the past and they lack the cultural ability to adjust to new circumstances.
The kinship system is the decisive reference point for all social practices. being the primary means through which economic, political and legal relationships are controlled( ascribed status, family, born, blood);
Members of traditional society have an emotional superstitious and fatalistic approach to the world.

Modern Society: Three Crucial Features

People may have traditions but they are not slaves to them and will change any that seem unnecessary or get in the way of continued cultural progress;
Kinship has a very much less important role in all areas of society because of the need for geographical and social mobility which weakens family ties;
Members of modern society are not fatalistic but forward looking and innovative , ready to overcome the obstacles

Talcott Parsons:

He develops this model in considerable detail elaborating on the choice of actions or behavioral orientation that tend to typify two types of society-

For example:

He argues that, in modern society an achievement orientation is the likely choice of action for people particularly within the economic sphere since it is a much more rational criterion for deciding who should be given what sort of jobs with what level of reward, than ascriptive criteria. In the achievement oriented society jobs are allocated and rewarded on the basis of achieved skills and hard work. It is what one can do, not who one is that gets rewarded.

Parsons believed that people in undeveloped countries needed to develop an 'entrepreneurial spirit' if economic growth was to be achieved, and this could only happen if less developed countries became more receptive to Western values, which promoted economic growth.

Parsons argued that traditional values in Africa, Asia and Latin America acted as barriers to development which included –

(a) Particularism:

Where people are allocated into roles based on their affective or familial relationship to those already in positions of power. For example, where a politician or head of a company gives their brother or someone from their village or ethnic group a job simply because they are close to them, rather than employing someone based on their individual talent.

(b) Collectivism:

This is where the individual is expected to put the group (the family or the village) before self-interest – this might mean that children are expected to leave school at a younger age in order to care for elderly parents or grandparents rather than staying in school and furthering their education.

(c) Patriarchy:

Patriarchal structures are much more entrenched in less developed countries, and so women are much less likely to gain positions of political or economic power, and remain in traditional, housewife roles. This means that half of the population is blocked from contributing to the political and economic development of the country.

(d) Ascribed Status and Fatalism:

Ascribed status is where your position in society is ascribed (or determined) at birth based on your caste, ethnic group or gender. Examples include the cast system in India, many slave systems, and this is also an aspect of extreme patriarchal societies. This can result in Fatalism – the feeling that there is nothing you can do to change your situation.

In contrast, Parsons believed that Western cultural values which promoted competition and economic growth: such values included the following:

(e) Individualism:

The opposite of collectivism This is where individuals put themselves first rather than the family or the village/ clan. This frees individuals up to leave families/ villages and use their talents to better themselves ( get an education/ set up businesses). Individualism should promote competition and drive economic growth

(f) Universalism:

This involves applying the same standards to everyone, and judging everyone according to the same standards This is the opposite of particularism, where people are judged differently based on their relationship to the person doing the judging.

(g) Achieved Status and Meritocracy:

Achieved status is where you achieve your success based on your own individual efforts. This is profoundly related to the ideal of meritocracy. If we live in a truly meritocratic society, then this means then the most talented and hardworking should rise to the top-jobs, and these should be the best people to ‘run the country’ and drive economic and social development.

Daniel Lerner:

Lerner (1964) adopts a similar socio-psychological approach to explain the transition from traditional to modern society. Daniel Lerner defined modernisation as “the process of social change in which development is the economic component”.

He said that the traditional society is an empathetic society. Society is defined by what it wants to become. The transitional man really wants to see the things he has hit her to “see” only in his mind's eye, reality to live in the world he has lived only vicariously.

Lerner theorized that radio, television, magazines, and newspapers were important catalysts of the modernization process.

Lerner, the more a society exhibits empathy the more it will be engaged in the process of modernization and more likely to be modern. Lerners account of modernization is somewhat

different from the simple model of two societies, traditional and modern since he tries to identify an intervening stage, the transitional society.

Walt Rostow:

According to Walt Rostow, “In his Stages of Economic growth: A non-communist Manifesto (1960, P-4) he claims that, “It is possible to identify all societies, in their economic dimension, as lying within one of five categories, the traditional society the precondition for take off, take off, the drive to maturity and the age of high mass consumption.

According to him, “Every developing country also have crossed five stage to be each modernization period, such as-

Traditional stage
The precondition of take off
The take off stage
Drive to technological maturity
The high mass consumption

I. Traditional Stage:

No scientific perspective and lack of modern technology, the lack of GDP is called the traditional stage. For example Bangladesh, Higti, Somalia, Bhutan etc.

Characteristics:

Lower productivity.
Agro based economy.
75% of people are associated with farming.
Lack of internal environment.
Social stratification.

II. The Pre-conditions of take off:

The stage is the changing stage. The whole economy is extremely changed. Increasing industrialization. For example, Great Britain(1800C), America(1820) and also Thailand in this stage.

Characteristics:

New entrepreneurship.
To take risk management in trade.
Broadening markets.
Increasing capital in the field of communication.
Established economic institution.
To establish a manufacturing industry.

III. Take off:

It is the central stage of modernization. Instead of production the society and country will be a developed country. The period of take off between different countries was Great Britain (1783-1802), French (1830-1860) and USA (1843-1860).

Characteristics:

Many production sectors.
Social, Political, Economic and institutional.
Lots of market places.
Take modernization.

IV. Technological Maturity:

As the period, when a society effectively applied the range of modern technology as the bulk of resources.

Characteristics:

Lower level of poverty.
Specialized occupation.
Tend to the city.
Changing entrepreneurship.
Realization of the disadvantages of industrialization.

V. High Mass Consumption:

Consumption goods, social security, leisure, innovation.

Neil Smelser:

Modern societies have a particular feature of social structural differentiation. He argued that differentiation has increased the functional capacity of modern organizations.

Smelser Identified four indicator of modern society-

Transition of technology from simple to complex on the basis of scientific knowledge.
Subsistence to commercial production.
Utilization of inorganic power.
Migration from rural to urban.

James Samuel Coleman:

Three main features of modern societies:

Differentiation of political structure.
Secularization of political culture.
Enhance the capacity of society's political system.

Modernized political systems have a higher capacity to deal with the function of national identity, legitimacy and distribution than traditional political systems.

Seymour Martin Lipset:

There are three main and historical elements which were favorable to the inception of the modernization theory of development after the second world war.

Arthur Lewis:

He was considered a key theorist in the panorama of modernization.

His idea of modernization became balanced by rural-urban migration when surplus labor moved from the traditional sector to capitalism within the modern sector.

Burke and Paul Rosenstein:

Discusses how the poor size of the market in underdeveloped countries. He argued that the expansion and manufacturing is necessary a market for products of the other and the necessary raw materials for the development and growth of the other.

Criticism of Modernization Theory:

Many critics have pointed out that the principal terms of the theory, the traditional and modern, are much too vague to be of much use as classifications of distinct societies.
Secondly although the theory is supposed to be about the way society develops there is little explanation offended for this process. This is a serious weakness.
One should question the proposition that, as industrialization and its attendant urbanization develop, the wider kinship system is weakened as people become primarily concerned with their own nuclear family.

Conclusion:

Thus, various indicators of social, political, and cultural development (such as degree of urbanization, high literacy rates, political democracy, free enterprise, secularization, birth control, etc.) have frequently been promoted as "conditions" for development.

Interestingly, as modern structures and institutions have spread around the world and created economic, political, social, and cultural linkages, an awareness of global interdependence and of the ecological consequences of industrial development and modern lifestyles has grown.

Historians link modernisation to the processes of urbanization and industrialization, as well as to the spread of education. As Kendall (2007) notes, "Urbanization accompanied modernization and the rapid process of industrialization. In sociological critical theory, modernization is linked to an overarching process of rationalization." When modernization increases within a society, the individual becomes increasingly important, eventually replacing the family or community as the fundamental unit of society.

Sociology Blog

Modernization Theory

Abstract:

Introduction:

Objectives of the Study:

Definition of Modernization Theory:

Propositions:

Origin of Modernization Theory:

Characteristics of Modernization Theory:

Tradition versus Modernity: